Kirkendall effect induced ultrafine VOOH nanoparticles and their transformation into VO 2 (M) for energy-efficient smart windows.

Vanadium dioxide (VO 2 ) has received widespread attention for application in energy-efficient smart windows because of its distinct thermochromic property in the near-infrared region during the reversible metal-insulator phase transition. In this study, lepidocrocite VOOH ultrafine nanoparticles (NPs) with a diameter less than 30 nm were prepared by a mild and efficient hydrothermal method, and the Kirkendall effect played a vital role in the growth of the VOOH NPs. It was found that VOOH could be transformed into VO 2 via a subsequent annealing treatment during which the size and morphology of VOOH are well preserved even though the annealing temperature is up to 500 °C. The ultrafine VO 2 NPs are crucial for achieving excellent nanothermochromic performance with a luminous transmittance ( T lum ) up to 56.45% and solar modulation ability (Δ T sol ) up to 14.95%. The environmental durability is well improved by coating VO 2 NPs with an SiO 2 shell as confirmed via progressive oxidation and acid corrosion experiments. Meanwhile, the T lum of the VO 2 @SiO 2 film is further increased from 56.45% to 62.29% while the Δ T sol remained unchanged. This integrated thermochromic performance presents great potential for the development of VO 2 -based smart windows.