Trait evolution is reversible, repeatable, and decoupled in the soldier caste of turtle ants.

The scope of adaptive phenotypic change within a lineage is shaped by how functional traits evolve. Castes are defining functional traits of adaptive phenotypic change in complex insect societies, and caste evolution is expected to be phylogenetically conserved and developmentally constrained at broad phylogenetic scales. Yet how castes evolve at the species level has remained largely unaddressed. Turtle ant soldiers (genus Cephalotes), an iconic example of caste specialization, defend nest entrances by using their elaborately armored heads as living barricades. Across species, soldier morphotype determines entrance specialization and defensive strategy, while head size sets the specific size of defended entrances. Our species-level comparative analyses of morphotype and head size evolution reveal that these key ecomorphological traits are extensively reversible, repeatable, and decoupled within soldiers and between soldier and queen castes. Repeated evolutionary gains and losses of the four morphotypes were reconstructed consistently across multiple analyses. In addition, morphotype did not predict mean head size across the three most common morphotypes, and head size distributions overlapped broadly across all morphotypes. Concordantly, multiple model-fitting approaches suggested that soldier head size evolution is best explained by a process of divergent pulses of change. Finally, while soldier and queen head size were broadly coupled across species, the level of head size disparity between castes was decoupled from both queen head size and soldier morphotype. These findings demonstrate that caste evolution can be highly dynamic at the species level, reshaping our understanding of adaptive morphological change in complex social lineages.