Antineoplastic Agents: Environmental Prevalence and Adverse Outcomes in Aquatic Organisms.
Alexis M WormingtonMaite De MaríaHajime G KuritaJoseph H BisesiNancy D DenslowChristopher J MartyniukPublished in: Environmental toxicology and chemistry (2020)
Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide, with 9.6 million cancer-related deaths in 2018. Cancer incidence has increased over time, and so has the prescription rate of chemotherapeutic drugs. These pharmaceuticals, known as antineoplastic agents, enter the aquatic environment via human excretion and wastewater. The objectives of the present critical review were to investigate the risk of antineoplastics to aquatic species and to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding their levels in the environment, because many antineoplastics are not adequately removed during wastewater treatment. We conducted 2 separate literature reviews to synthesize data on the global environmental prevalence and toxicity of antineoplastics. The antineoplastics most frequently detected in the environment included cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, tamoxifen, methotrexate, and 5-fluorouracil; all were detectable in multiple water sources, including effluent and surface waters. These antineoplastics span 3 different mechanistic classes, with cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide classified as alkylating agents, tamoxifen as a hormonal agent, and methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil as antimetabolites. Studies that characterize the risk of antineoplastics released into aquatic environments are scarce. We summarize the biological impacts of the most environmentally prevalent antineoplastics on aquatic organisms and propose an adverse outcome pathway for cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide, 2 widely prescribed drugs with a similar immunotoxic mode of action. Acute and chronic ecotoxicity studies using aquatic models are needed for risk characterization of antineoplastics. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:967-985. © 2020 SETAC.
Keyphrases
- wastewater treatment
- risk assessment
- high dose
- risk factors
- low dose
- human health
- papillary thyroid
- healthcare
- antibiotic resistance genes
- squamous cell
- systematic review
- liver failure
- breast cancer cells
- adipose tissue
- positive breast cancer
- estrogen receptor
- drinking water
- metabolic syndrome
- skeletal muscle
- big data
- emergency department
- artificial intelligence
- insulin resistance
- childhood cancer
- anaerobic digestion
- case control