Two-Phase Reaction Mechanism for Fluorination and Defluorination in Fluoride-Shuttle Batteries: A First-Principles Study.

Fluoride-shuttle batteries (FSBs), which are based on fluoride-ion transfer, have attracted attention because of their high theoretical energy densities. The fluorination and defluorination reactions at the electrodes are the possible rate-determining steps in FSBs, and understanding the mechanism is important to achieve smooth charge/discharge. In this study, we discuss the thermodynamically favored pathways for the fluorination and defluorination reactions and compare the reactions through the solid-solution and two-phase-coexistent states by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The free energies of the solid-solution and two-phase states approximate the energies calculated by DFT, and their accuracy was validated by comparison with experimental formation enthalpies and free energies. The relative formation enthalpies of typical, transition, and relativistic metal (Tl, Pb, and Bi) fluorides are well reproduced by DFT calculations within 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 eV, respectively. We also show that the reaction pathway can be determined by comparing the formation enthalpies of the metal fluoride H, a fluorine vacancy HV, and an interstitial fluorine defect HI from the simple selection rule. The enthalpy relation of HI > H > -HV observed in all the calculations strongly suggests that fluorination and defluorination in FSB electrodes occur by a two-phase reaction. This fluorination and defluorination mechanism will be useful to clarify the rate-determining step in FSBs.