Erythropoietin and its derivatives: from tissue protection to immune regulation.

Erythropoietin (EPO) is an evolutionarily conserved hormone well documented for its erythropoietic role via binding the homodimeric EPO receptor (EPOR)2. In past decades, evidence has proved that EPO acts far beyond erythropoiesis. By binding the tissue-protective receptor (TPR), EPO suppresses proinflammatory cytokines, protects cells from apoptosis and promotes wound healing. Very recently, new data revealed that TPR is widely expressed on a variety of immune cells, and EPO could directly modulate their activation, differentiation and function. Notably, nonerythropoietic EPO derivatives, which mimic the structure of helix B within EPO, specifically bind TPR and show great potency in tissue protection and immune regulation. These small peptides prevent the cardiovascular side effects of EPO and are promising as clinical drugs. This review briefly introduces the receptors and tissue-protective effects of EPO and its derivatives and highlights their immunomodulatory functions and application prospects.