Deeper and stronger North Atlantic Gyre during the Last Glacial Maximum.

Subtropical gyre (STG) depth and strength are controlled by wind stress curl and surface buoyancy forcing 1,2 . Modern hydrographic data reveal that the STG extends to a depth of about 1 km in the Northwest Atlantic, with its maximum depth defined by the base of the subtropical thermocline. Despite the likelihood of greater wind stress curl and surface buoyancy loss during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 3 , previous work suggests minimal change in the depth of the glacial STG 4 . Here we show a sharp glacial water mass boundary between 33° N and 36° N extending down to between 2.0 and 2.5 km-approximately 1 km deeper than today. Our findings arise from benthic foraminiferal δ 18 O profiles from sediment cores in two depth transects at Cape Hatteras (36-39° N) and Blake Outer Ridge (29-34° N) in the Northwest Atlantic. This result suggests that the STG, including the Gulf Stream, was deeper and stronger during the LGM than at present, which we attribute to increased glacial wind stress curl, as supported by climate model simulations, as well as greater glacial production of denser subtropical mode waters (STMWs). Our data suggest (1) that subtropical waters probably contributed to the geochemical signature of what is conventionally identified as Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW) 5-7 and (2) the STG helped sustain continued buoyancy loss, water mass conversion and northwards meridional heat transport (MHT) in the glacial North Atlantic.