s valence electrons in cations of metal oxides serving as descriptors for electron and hole polarons.

In some metal oxides, an excess electron can give rise to the formation of a small polaron localized on a single site. However, there are still some metal oxides that exhibit the formation of a large polaron. The underlying mechanism behind this phenomenon remains unclear. In this study, we investigate polaron formation in metal oxides favorable for polaron formation using different functionals and through a review of the literature. Our findings indicate that the s valence electrons in cations could serve as a descriptor to classify the polarons in materials. In metal oxides with cations having n s ( n ⩾ 5) valence electrons, excess charges trend to localize on several sites or form a two-dimensional shape, and even a large polaron, as these s electrons are delocalized in nature and have a large effect on p or d state polarons. The delocalized nature of n s ( n ⩽ 4) valence electrons in cations is relatively small and does not affect the localization condition of p or d state polarons. Therefore, the excess charges in these metal oxides with n s ( n ⩽ 4) valence electrons prefer to form a small polaron localizing on a single site. This work unveils the impact of the s valence in cations on polaron formation and provides a fundamental understanding of various types of polarons in metal oxides.