Integrating Application Methods and Concentrations of Salicylic Acid as an Avenue to Enhance Growth, Production, and Water Use Efficiency of Wheat under Full and Deficit Irrigation in Arid Countries.

As water deficit in arid countries has already become the norm rather than the exception, water conservation in crop production processes has become very critical. Therefore, it is urgent to develop feasible strategies to achieve this goal. Exogenous application of salicylic acid (SA) has been proposed as one of the effective and economical strategies for mitigating water deficit in plants. However, the recommendations concerning the proper application methods (AMs) and the optimal concentrations (Cons) of SA under field conditions seem contradictory. Here, a two-year field study was conducted to compare the effects of twelve combinations of AMs and Cons on the vegetative growth, physiological parameters, yield, and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) of wheat under full (FL) and limited (LM) irrigation regimes. These combinations included seed soaking in purified water (S 0 ), 0.5 mM SA (S 1 ), and 1.0 mM SA (S 2 ); foliar spray of SA at concentrations of 1.0 mM (F 1 ), 2.0 mM (F 2 ), and 3.0 mM (F 3 ); and combinations of S 1 and S 2 with F 1 (S 1 F 1 and S 2 F 1 ), F 2 (S 1 F 2 and S 2 F 2 ), and F 3 (S 1 F 3 and S 2 F 3 ). The results showed that the LM regime caused a significant reduction in all vegetative growth, physiological, and yield parameters, while it led to an increase in IWUE. The application of SA through seed soaking, foliar application, and a combination of both methods increased all of the studied parameters in all the evaluated times, resulting in higher values for all parameters than the treatment without SA (S 0 ). The multivariate analyses, including principal component analysis and heatmapping, identified the foliar application method with 1-3 mM SA alone or in combination with seed soaking with 0.5 mM SA as the best treatments for the optimal performance of wheat under both irrigation regimes. Overall, our results indicated that exogenous application of SA has the potential to greatly improve growth, yield, and IWUE under limited water application, while optimal coupling combinations of AMs and Cons were required for positive effects in field conditions.