Metal nanoparticle-induced effects on green toads (Amphibia, Anura) under climate change: conservation implications.

The toxicity of aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), copper oxide (CuO), iron oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ), nickel oxide (NiO), zinc oxide (ZnO), and titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles (NPs) on amphibians and their interaction with high temperatures, remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the survival, developmental, behavioral, and histological reactions of Bufotes viridis embryos and larvae exposed to different NPs for a duration of 10 days, using lethal concentrations (LC25%, LC50%, and LC75% mg/L) under both ambient (AT: 18 °C) and high (HT: 21 °C) temperatures. Based on LC, NiONPs > ZnONPs > CuONPs > Al 2 O 3 NPs > TiO 2 NPs > Fe 3 O 4 NPs showed the highest mortality at AT. A similar pattern was observed at HT, although mortality occurred at lower concentrations and Fe 3 O 4 NPs were more toxic than TiO 2 NPs. The results indicated that increasing concentrations of NPs significantly reduced hatching rates, except for TiO 2 NPs. Survival rates decreased, abnormality rates increased, and developmental processes slowed down, particularly for NiONPs and ZnONPs, under HT conditions. However, exposure to low concentrations of Fe 3 O 4 NPs for up to 7 days, CuONPs for up to 72 h, and NiO, ZnONPs, and TiO 2 NPs for up to 96 h did not have a negative impact on survival compared with the control group under AT. In behavioral tests with larvae, NPs generally induced hypoactivity at AT and hyperactivity at HT. Histological findings revealed liver and internal gill tissue lesions, and an increase in the number of melanomacrophage centers at HT. These results suggest that global warming may exacerbate the toxicity of metal oxide NPs to amphibians, emphasizing the need for further research and conservation efforts in this context.