Elucidating the Role of Electrochemically Formed LiF in Discharge and Aging of Li-CF x Batteries.

Fifty years after its introduction, the lithium-carbon monofluoride (Li-CF x ) battery still has the highest cell-level specific energy demonstrated in a practical cell format. However, few studies have analyzed how the main electrochemical discharge product, LiF, evolves during the discharge and cell rest periods. To fill this gap in understanding, we investigated molecular-level and interfacial changes in CF x electrodes upon the discharge and aging of Li-CF x cells, revealing the role of LiF beyond that of a simple discharge product. We reveal that electrochemically formed LiF deposits on the surface of the CF x electrode and subsequently partially disperses into the electrolyte to form a colloidal suspension during cell aging, as determined from galvanostatic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), solid-state 19 F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and operando optical light microscopy measurements. Electrochemical LiF formation and LiF dispersion into the electrolyte are distinct competing rate processes that each affect the cell impedance differently. Using knowledge of LiF dispersion and saturation, an in-line EIS method was developed to compute the depth of discharge of CF x cells beyond coulomb counting. Solid-state 19 F NMR measurements quantitatively revealed how LiF and CF moieties evolved with discharge. Covalent CF bonds react first, followed by a combination of covalent and ionic CF bonds. Quantitively correlating NMR and electrochemical measurements reveals not only how LiF formation affects cell impedance but also that CF bonds with the most ionic character remain unreacted, which limits realization of the full theoretical specific capacity of the CF x electrode. The results reveal new insights into the electrochemical discharge mechanism of Li-CF x cells and the unique role of LiF in cell discharge and aging, which suggest pretreatment strategies and methods to improve and measure the performance of Li-CF x batteries.