Molecular responses of legumes to abiotic stress: post-translational modifications of proteins and redox signaling.

Legumes include several major crops that can fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic root nodules, thus reducing the demand for nitrogen fertilizers and contributing to sustainable agriculture. Global change models predict increases in temperature and extreme weather conditions. This scenario might increase plant exposure to abiotic stresses and negatively affect crop production. Regulation of whole plant physiology and nitrogen fixation in legumes during abiotic stress is complex, and only a few mechanisms have been elucidated. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and reactive sulfur species (RSS) are key players in the acclimation and stress tolerance mechanisms of plants. However, the specific redox-dependent signaling pathways are far from understood. One mechanism by which ROS, RNS, and RSS fulfil their signaling role is the post-translational modification (PTM) of proteins. Redox-based PTMs occur in the cysteine thiol group (oxidation, S-nitrosylation, S-glutathionylation, persulfidation), and also in methionine (oxidation), tyrosine (nitration), and lysine and arginine (carbonylation/glycation) residues. Unraveling PTM patterns under different types of stress and establishing the functional implications may give insight into the underlying mechanisms by which the plant and nodule respond to adverse conditions. Here, we review current knowledge on redox-based PTMs and their possible consequences in legume and nodule biology.