Homologies and evolution of male tail characters in rhabditid and diplogastrid nematodes.

A major question in evolutionary biology is how often the same developmental events, mechanisms and genes are reused in the recurrent evolution of similar phenotypes. If this happens frequently, it would suggest that evolution is often constrained by developmental genetic mechanisms. To help address this question, we used adherens junction staining and laser ablation to analyze the development underlying several features of nematode male tails have evolved recurrently. We find that recurrent evolution has sometimes employed similar developmental events (parallel evolution) and sometimes different events (convergent evolution). Specifically, phasmid position changed four times via cell migration and never by switches in cell lineage polarity; different genital papillae are missing in species with less than nine; and tail tip morphogenesis was gained at least twice (once with tail tip cell fusions and once without) and lost at least twice. As in previous analyses, we also find that genital papilla positions have shifted differently in different lineages relative to their conserved positions of origin in the lateral hypodermis. In particular, the v1 papilla homolog in diplogastrids has moved dorsally relative to the other v-papillae and lies posterior to the v2 papilla. The prevalence of recurrently evolved characters (homoplasy) suggests that caution should be exercised when using these characters for phylogenetic inference. On the other hand, because of their recurrent evolution, these characters provide good models for investigating how developmental and genetic systems may bias, constrain or allow phenotypic evolution.