Microbial urea-nitrogen recycling in arctic ground squirrels: the effect of ambient temperature of hibernation.

Energy conservation associated with hibernation is maximized at the intersection of low body temperature (T b ), long torpor bouts, and few interbout arousals. In the arctic ground squirrel (Urocitellus parryii), energy conservation during hibernation is best achieved at ambient temperatures (T a ) around 0 °C; however, they spend the majority of hibernation at considerably lower T a . Because arctic ground squirrels switch to mixed fuel metabolism, including protein catabolism, at extreme low T a of hibernation, we sought to investigate how microbial urea-nitrogen recycling is used under different thermal conditions. Injecting squirrels with isotopically labeled urea ( 13 C/ 15 N) during hibernation at T a 's of - 16 °C and 2 °C and while active and euthermic allowed us to assess the ureolytic activity of gut microbes and the amount of liberated nitrogen incorporated into tissues. We found greater incorporation of microbially-liberated nitrogen into tissues of hibernating squirrels. Although ureolytic activity appears higher in euthermic squirrels, liberated nitrogen likely makes up a smaller percentage of the available nitrogen pool in active, fed animals. Because non-lipid fuel is a limiting factor for torpor at lower T a in this species, we hypothesized there would be greater incorporation of liberated nitrogen in animals hibernating at - 16 °C. However, we found higher microbial-ureolytic activity and incorporation of microbially-liberated nitrogen, particularly in the liver, in squirrels hibernating at 2 °C. Likely this is because squirrels hibernating at 2 °C had higher T b and longer interbout arousals, a combination of factors creating more favorable conditions for gut microbes to thrive and maintain greater activity while giving the host more time to absorb microbial metabolites.