Gold Nanoparticles Biosynthesized and Functionalized Using a Hydroxylated Tetraterpenoid Trigger Gene Expression Changes and Apoptosis in Cancer Cells.

Understanding the synthetic mechanisms and cell-nanoparticle interactions of biosynthesized and functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using natural products is of great importance for developing their applications in nanomedicine. In this study, we detailed the biotransformation mechanism of Au(III) into AuNPs using a hydroxylated tetraterpenoid deinoxanthin (DX) from the extremophile Deinococcus radiodurans. During the process, Au(III) was rapidly reduced to Au(I) and subsequently reduced to Au(0) by deprotonation of the hydroxyl head groups of the tetraterpenoid. The oxidized form, deprotonated 2-ketodeinoxanthin (DX3), served as a surface-capping agent to stabilize the AuNPs. The functionalized DX-AuNPs demonstrated stronger inhibitory activity against cancer cells compared with sodium citrate-AuNPs and were nontoxic to normal cells. DX-AuNPs accumulated in the cytoplasm, organelles, and nuclei, and induced reactive oxygen species generation, DNA damage, and apoptosis within MCF-7 cancer cells. In the cells treated with DX-AuNPs, 374 genes, including RRAGC gene, were upregulated; 135 genes, including the genes encoding FOXM1 and NR4A1, were downregulated. These genes are mostly involved in metabolism, cell growth, DNA damage, oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis. The anticancer activity of the DX-AuNPs was attributed to the alteration of gene expression and induction of apoptosis. Our results provide significant insight into the synthesis mechanism of AuNPs functionalized with natural tetraterpenoids, which possess enhanced anticancer potential.