Multiple transitions between realms shape relict lineages of Proteus cave salamanders.

In comparison to biodiversity on earth's surface, subterranean biodiversity has largely remained concealed. The olm (Proteus anguinus) is one of the most enigmatic extant cave inhabitants, until now little was known on its genetic structure and evolutionary history. Olms inhabit subterranean waters throughout the Dinaric Karst of the western Balkans, with a seemingly uniform phenotypic appearance of cave-specialized traits: an elongate body, snout and limbs, degenerated eyes and loss of pigmentation ('white olm'). Only a single small region in south-eastern Slovenia harbors olms with a phenotype typical of surface animals: pigmented skin, eyes, a blunt snout and short limbs ('black olm'). We used a combination of mitochondrial DNA and genome-wide SNP data to investigate the molecular diversity, evolutionary history and biogeography of olms along the Dinaric Karst. We found nine deeply divergent species-level lineages that separated between 17 and 4 mya, while molecular diversity within lineages was low. We detected no signal of recent admixture between lineages and only limited historical gene flow. Biogeographically, the contemporaneous distribution of lineages mostly mirrors hydrologically separated subterranean environments, while the historical separation of olm lineages follows micro-tectonic and climatic changes in the area. The reconstructed phylogeny suggests at least four independent transitions to the cave phenotype. Two of the species-level lineages have miniscule ranges and may represent Europe's rarest amphibians. Their rarity and the decline in other lineages call for protecting their subterranean habitats.