Testosterone histories from tusks reveal woolly mammoth musth episodes.

Hormones in biological media reveal endocrine activity related to development, reproduction, disease and stress on different timescales 1 . Serum provides immediate circulating concentrations 2 , whereas various tissues record steroid hormones accumulated over time 3,4 . Hormones have been studied in keratin, bones and teeth in modern 5-8 and ancient contexts 9-12 ; however, the biological significance of such records is subject to ongoing debate 10,13-16 , and the utility of tooth-associated hormones has not previously been demonstrated. Here we use liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry paired with fine-scale serial sampling to measure steroid hormone concentrations in modern and fossil tusk dentin. An adult male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) tusk shows periodic increases in testosterone that reveal episodes of musth 17-19 , an annually recurring period of behavioural and physiological changes that enhance mating success 20-23 . Parallel assessments of a male woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) tusk show that mammoths also experienced musth. These results set the stage for wide-ranging studies using steroids preserved in dentin to investigate development, reproduction and stress in modern and extinct mammals. Because dentin grows by apposition, resists degradation, and often contains growth lines, teeth have advantages over other tissues that are used as records of endocrine data. Given the low mass of dentin powder required for analytical precision, we anticipate dentin-hormone studies to extend to smaller animals. Thus, in addition to broad applications in zoology and palaeontology, tooth hormone records could support medical, forensic, veterinary and archaeological studies.