The expert clinical pharmacological advice program for tailoring on real-time antimicrobial therapies with emerging TDM candidates in special populations: how the ugly duckling turned into a swan.

TDM-based ECPA programs lead by the MD Clinical Pharmacologist may represent a way forward for maximizing clinical efficacy and for minimizing the risk of resistance developments and/or toxicity of antimicrobials. Stakeholders should be aware of the fact that this innovative approach may be cost-effective.