Fully forward mode training for optical neural networks.

Optical computing promises to improve the speed and energy efficiency of machine learning applications 1-6 . However, current approaches to efficiently train these models are limited by in silico emulation on digital computers. Here we develop a method called fully forward mode (FFM) learning, which implements the compute-intensive training process on the physical system. The majority of the machine learning operations are thus efficiently conducted in parallel on site, alleviating numerical modelling constraints. In free-space and integrated photonics, we experimentally demonstrate optical systems with state-of-the-art performances for a given network size. FFM learning shows training the deepest optical neural networks with millions of parameters achieves accuracy equivalent to the ideal model. It supports all-optical focusing through scattering media with a resolution of the diffraction limit; it can also image in parallel the objects hidden outside the direct line of sight at over a kilohertz frame rate and can conduct all-optical processing with light intensity as weak as subphoton per pixel (5.40 × 10 18 - operations-per-second-per-watt energy efficiency) at room temperature. Furthermore, we prove that FFM learning can automatically search non-Hermitian exceptional points without an analytical model. FFM learning not only facilitates orders-of-magnitude-faster learning processes, but can also advance applied and theoretical fields such as deep neural networks, ultrasensitive perception and topological photonics.