Type 2 diabetes (T2D) affects more than 32.3 million individuals in the United States, creating an economic burden of nearly $966 billion in 2021. T2D results from a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion from the pancreatic β cell. However, genetic and physiologic data indicate that defects in β cell function are the chief determinant of whether an individual with insulin resistance will progress to a diagnosis of T2D. The subcellular organelles of the insulin secretory pathway, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and secretory granules, play a critical role in maintaining the heavy biosynthetic burden of insulin production, processing, and secretion. In addition, the mitochondria enable the process of insulin release by integrating the metabolism of nutrients into energy output. Advanced imaging techniques are needed to determine how changes in the structure and composition of these organelles contribute to the loss of insulin secretory capacity in the β cell during T2D. Several microscopy techniques, including electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and soft X-ray tomography, have been utilized to investigate the structure-function relationship within the β cell. In this overview article, we will detail the methodology, strengths, and weaknesses of each approach. © 2024 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 14:5243-5267, 2024.
Keyphrases
- type diabetes
- insulin resistance
- high resolution
- endoplasmic reticulum
- glycemic control
- electron microscopy
- single cell
- single molecule
- cell therapy
- metabolic syndrome
- cardiovascular disease
- adipose tissue
- induced apoptosis
- magnetic resonance imaging
- high fat diet
- gene expression
- skeletal muscle
- high throughput
- risk assessment
- risk factors
- cell death
- endoplasmic reticulum stress
- oxidative stress
- cell proliferation
- cell cycle arrest
- deep learning
- reactive oxygen species