Zinc Uptake, Photosynthetic Efficiency and Oxidative Stress in the Seagrass Cymodocea nodosa Exposed to ZnO Nanoparticles.

We characterized zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) by dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), while we evaluated photosystem II (PSII) responses, Zn uptake kinetics, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) accumulation, in C. nodosa exposed to 5 mg L-1 and 10 mg L-1 ZnO NPs for 4 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h. Four h after exposure to 10 mg L-1 ZnO NPs, we noticed a disturbance of PSII functioning that became more severe after 12 h. However, after a 24 h exposure to 10 mg L-1 ZnO NPs, we observed a hormetic response, with both time and dose as the basal stress levels needed for induction of the adaptive response. This was achieved through the reduced plastoquinone (PQ) pool, at a 12 h exposure, which mediated the generation of chloroplastic H2O2; acting as a fast acclimation signaling molecule. Nevertheless, longer treatment (48 h and 72 h) resulted in decreasing the photoprotective mechanism to dissipate excess energy as heat (NPQ) and increasing the quantum yield of non-regulated energy loss (ΦNO). This increased the formation of singlet oxygen (1O2), and decreased the fraction of open reaction centers, mostly after a 72-h exposure at 10 mg L-1 ZnO NPs due to increased Zn uptake compared to 5 mg L-1.