Metabolomic Analysis of Phytochemical Compounds from Ethanolic Extract of Lime ( Citrus aurantifolia ) Peel and Its Anti-Cancer Effects against Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells.

Lime peels are food waste from lime product manufacturing. We previously developed and optimized a green extraction method for hesperidin-limonin-rich lime peel extract. This study aimed to identify the metabolomics profile of phytochemicals and the anti-cancer effects of ethanolic extract of lime ( Citrus aurantifolia ) peel against liver cancer cells PLC/PRF/5. The extract's metabolomics profile was analyzed by using LC-qTOF/MS and GC-HRMS. The anti-cancer effects were studied by using MTT assay, Annexin-PI assay, and Transwell-invasion assay. Results show that the average IC 50 (s) of hesperidin, limonin, and the extract on cancer cells' viability were 165.615, 188.073, and 503.004 µg/mL, respectively. At the IC 50 levels, the extract induced more apoptosis than those of pure compounds when incubating for 24 and 48 h ( p < 0.0001). A combination of limonin and hesperidin showed a synergistic effect on apoptosis induction ( p < 0.001), but the effect of the combination was still less than that of the extract at 48 h. Furthermore, the extract significantly inhibited cancer cell invasion better than limonin but equal to hesperidin. At the IC 50 level, the extract contains many folds lower amounts of hesperidin and limonin than the IC 50 doses of the pure compounds. Besides limonin and hesperidin, there were another 60 and 22 compounds detected from the LCMS and GCMS analyses, respectively. Taken altogether, the superior effect of the ethanolic extract against liver cancer cells compared to pure compound likely results from the combinatorial effects of limonin, hesperidin, and other phytochemical components in the extract.