Time Evolution of Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticle-Protein Interactions.

To date, much effort has been devoted toward the study of protein corona formation onto large gold nanoparticles (GNPs). However, the protein corona concept breaks down for GNPs in the ultrasmall size regime (<3 nm), and, as a result, our understanding of ultrasmall GNP (usGNP)-protein interactions remains incomplete. Herein, we used anionic usGNPs and six different proteins as model systems to systematically investigate usGNP-protein interactions, with particular focus on the time evolution and long-term behavior of complex formation. The different proteins comprised chymotrypsin (Cht), trypsin (Try), thrombin (Thr), serum albumin (HSA), cytochrome c (Cyt c), and factor XII (FXII). We used a range of biochemical and biophysical methods to estimate binding affinities, determine the effects of usGNPs on protein structure and function, assess the reversibility of any protein structural and functional changes, and evaluate usGNP-protein complex stability. Among the main findings, we observed that prolonged (24 h)─but not short-term (10 min)─interactions between proteins and usGNPs permanently altered protein function, including enzyme activities (Try, Thr, and FXIIa), peroxidase-like activity (Cyt c), and ligand-binding properties (HSA). Remarkably, this occurred without any large-scale loss of the native global conformation, implying time-dependent effects of usGNPs on local protein conformation or dynamics. We also found that both short-(10 min) and long-term (24 h) interactions between proteins and usGNPs yielded short-lived complexes, i.e., there was no time-dependent "hardening" of the interactions at the binding interface as usually seen with large GNPs. The present study increases our fundamental understanding of nano-bio interactions in the ultrasmall size regime, which may assist the safe and effective translation of usGNPs into the clinic.