Understanding altered contractile properties in advanced age: insights from a systematic muscle modelling approach.

Age-related alterations of skeletal muscle are numerous and present inconsistently, and the effect of their interaction on contractile performance can be nonintuitive. Hill-type muscle models predict muscle force according to well-characterised contractile phenomena. Coupled with simple, yet reasonably realistic activation dynamics, such models consist of parameters that are meaningfully linked to fundamental aspects of muscle excitation and contraction. We aimed to illustrate the utility of a muscle model for elucidating relevant mechanisms and predicting changes in output by simulating the individual and combined effects on isometric force of several known ageing-related adaptations. Simulating literature-informed reductions in free Ca 2+ concentration and Ca 2+ sensitivity generated predictions at odds qualitatively with the characteristic slowing of contraction speed. Conversely, incorporating slower Ca 2+ removal or a fractional increase in type I fibre area emulated expected changes; the former was required to simulate slowing of the twitch measured experimentally. Slower Ca 2+ removal more than compensated for force loss arising from a large reduction in Ca 2+ sensitivity or moderate reduction in Ca 2+ release, producing realistic age-related shifts in the force-frequency relationship. Consistent with empirical data, reductions in free Ca 2+ concentration and Ca 2+ sensitivity reduced maximum tetanic force only slightly, even when acting in concert, suggesting a modest contribution to lower specific force. Lower tendon stiffness and slower intrinsic shortening speed slowed and prolonged force development in a compliance-dependent manner without affecting force decay. This work demonstrates the advantages of muscle modelling for exploring sources of variation and identifying mechanisms underpinning the altered contractile properties of aged muscle.