Catalytic Activity and Electrochemical Stability of Ru 1- x M x O 2 (M = Zr, Nb, Ta): Computational and Experimental Study of the Oxygen Evolution Reaction.

We use computations and experiments to determine the effect of substituting zirconium, niobium, and tantalum within rutile RuO 2 on the structure, oxygen evolution reaction (OER) mechanism and activity, and electrochemical stability. Calculated electronic structures altered by Zr, Nb, and Ta show surface regions of electron density depletion and accumulation, along with anisotropic lattice parameter shifts dependent on the substitution site, substituent, and concentration. Consistent with theory, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy experiments show shifts in binding energies of O-2s, O-2p, and Ru-4d peaks due to the substituents. Experimentally, the substituted materials showed the presence of two phases with a majority phase that contains the metal substituent within the rutile phase and a second, smaller-percentage RuO 2 phase. Our experimental analysis of OER activity shows Zr, Nb, and Ta substituents at 12.5 atom % induce lower activity relative to RuO 2 , which agrees with computing the average of all sites; however, Zr and Ta substitution at specific sites yields higher theoretical OER activity than RuO 2 , with Zr substitution suggesting an alternative OER mechanism. Metal dissolution predictions show the involvement of cooperative interactions among multiple surface sites and the electrolyte. Zr substitution at specific sites increases activation barriers for Ru dissolution, however, with Zr surface dissolution rates comparable to those of Ru. Experimental OER stability analysis shows lower Ru dissolution from synthesized RuO 2 and Zr-substituted RuO 2 compared to commercial RuO 2 and comparable amounts of Zr and Ru dissolved from Zr-substituted RuO 2 , aligned with our calculations.