Chromium VI (Cr (VI)) can cross cell membranes readily and causes the formation of Cr-DNA adducts, genomic damages, elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and alteration of survival signaling pathways, as evidenced by the modulation in p53 signaling pathway. Mammals, including humans are exposed to Cr, including Cr (VI), frequently through inhalation, drinking water, and food. Several studies demonstrated that Cr (VI) induces cellular death through apoptosis and autophagy, genotoxicity, functional alteration of mitochondria, endocrine and reproductive impairments. In the present review, studies on deleterious effects of Cr (VI) exposure to mammalian cells ( in vivo and in vitro ) have been documented. Special attention is paid to the underlying molecular mechanism of Cr (VI) toxicity.
Keyphrases
- signaling pathway
- drinking water
- reactive oxygen species
- cell death
- oxidative stress
- endoplasmic reticulum stress
- pi k akt
- epithelial mesenchymal transition
- stem cells
- dna damage
- gene expression
- cell therapy
- induced apoptosis
- mesenchymal stem cells
- copy number
- case control
- cell free
- single molecule
- cell proliferation
- risk assessment
- circulating tumor
- nucleic acid