Frequency-following responses to speech sounds are highly conserved across species and contain cortical contributions.

Time-varying pitch is a vital cue for human speech perception. Neural processing of time-varying pitch has been extensively assayed using scalp-recorded frequency-following responses (FFRs), an electrophysiological signal thought to reflect integrated phase-locked neural ensemble activity from subcortical auditory areas. Emerging evidence increasingly points to a putative contribution of auditory cortical ensembles to the scalp-recorded FFRs. However, the properties of cortical FFRs and precise characterization of laminar sources are still unclear. Here we used direct human intracortical recordings as well as extra- and intracranial recordings from macaques and guinea pigs to characterize the properties of cortical sources of FFRs to time-varying pitch patterns. We found robust FFRs in the auditory cortex across all species. We leveraged representational similarity analysis as a translational bridge to characterize similarities between the human and animal models. Laminar recordings in animal models showed FFRs emerging primarily from the thalamorecepient layers of the auditory cortex. FFRs arising from these cortical sources significantly contributed to the scalp-recorded FFRs via volume conduction. Our research paves the way for a wide array of studies to investigate the role of cortical FFRs in auditory perception and plasticity.Significance StatementFrequency following responses (FFRs) to speech are scalp-recorded neural signals that inform the fidelity of sound encoding in the auditory system. FFRs, long believed to arise from brainstem and midbrain, have shaped our understanding of sub-cortical auditory processing and plasticity. Non-invasive studies have shown cortical contributions to the FFRs, however, this is still actively debated. Here we employed direct cortical recordings to trace the cortical contribution to the FFRs and characterize the properties of these cortical FFRs. With extra-cranial and intra-cranial recordings within the same subjects we show that cortical FFRs indeed contribute to the scalp-recorded FFRs, and their response properties differ from the sub-cortical FFRs. The findings provide strong evidence to revisit and reframe the FFR driven theories and models of sub-cortical auditory processing and plasticity with careful characterization of cortical and sub-cortical components in the scalp-recorded FFRs.