Musculotendon Parameters in Lower Limb Models: Simplifications, Uncertainties, and Muscle Force Estimation Sensitivity.

Musculotendon parameters are key factors in the Hill-type muscle contraction dynamics, determining the muscle force estimation accuracy of a musculoskeletal model. Their values are mostly derived from muscle architecture datasets, whose emergence has been a major impetus for model development. However, it is often not clear if such parameter update indeed improves simulation accuracy. Our goal is to explain to model users how these parameters are derived and how accurate they are, as well as to what extent errors in parameter values might influence force estimation. We examine in detail the derivation of musculotendon parameters in six muscle architecture datasets and four prominent OpenSim models of the lower limb, and then identify simplifications which could add uncertainties to the derived parameter values. Finally, we analyze the sensitivity of muscle force estimation to these parameters both numerically and analytically. Nine typical simplifications in parameter derivation are identified. Partial derivatives of the Hill-type contraction dynamics are derived. Tendon slack length is determined as the musculotendon parameter that muscle force estimation is most sensitive to, whereas pennation angle is the least impactful. Anatomical measurements alone are not enough to calibrate musculotendon parameters, and the improvement on muscle force estimation accuracy will be limited if the source muscle architecture datasets are the only main update. Model users may check if a dataset or model is free of concerning factors for their research or application requirements. The derived partial derivatives may be used as the gradient for musculotendon parameter calibration. For model development, we demonstrate that it is more promising to focus on other model parameters or components and seek alternative strategies to further increase simulation accuracy.