CO 2 Electrolysis Technologies: Bridging the Gap toward Scale-up and Commercialization.

CO 2 electroreduction (CO 2 E) converts CO 2 into carbon-based fuels and chemical feedstocks that can be integrated into existing chemical processes. After decades of research, CO 2 E is approaching commercialization with several startups, pilot plants, and large initiatives targeting different products. Here, we analyze the global efforts in scaling up CO 2 E, addressing implementation challenges and proposing methods for acceleration. We present a comparative analysis of key performance indicators (KPIs) between laboratory and industrial settings and suggest a stepwise technoeconomic analysis (TEA) framework, supported by industrial data, exploiting interactions within the academic and industrial communities. We identify the lack of systems-oriented standardization and durability as the main bottlenecks slowing down progress in the lab-to-prototype-to-market pathway of CO 2 E technologies. Inspired by electrolysis and fuel cell technologies, we outline protocols to advance fundamental research and aid catalyst development progress in performance, upscaling, and technology readiness level of CO 2 E.