The role of estradiol in the immune response against COVID-19.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the pathogen agent causing coronavirus disease (COVID)-19, which was declared a global pandemic in 2020. The spike protein of this virus and the angiotensin-converter enzyme (ACE)-2 in host cells in humans play a vital role in infection and in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Estradiol is known to modulate the actions of immune cells, and, therefore, the antiviral mechanisms of these cells could also be modified by this hormone stimulus. Even though estradiol is not considered a protective factor, evidence shows that women with high levels of this hormone have a lower risk of developing severe symptoms and an even a lower incidence of death. Understanding the mechanism of action of estradiol with regard to viral infections and COVID-19 is essential for the improvement of therapeutic strategies. This review aims to describe the effects that estradiol exerts on immune cells during viral infections and COVID-19.