Three-Year Custody Outcomes Among Infants Investigated by Child Protection Systems for Prenatal Substance Exposure in California.

PSE confers an independent risk of custody interruption among infants investigated by CPS. The younger age of these infants, complexity of parental substance use, and potential misalignment of administrative permanency timelines with parental recovery all suggest the need for increased research, policy, and programmatic interventions to serve this vulnerable population.