Pathogenesis of chronic heart failure: cardiovascular aging, risk factors, comorbidities, and disease modifiers.
Filippos TriposkiadisAndrew XanthopoulosJohn ParissisJaved ButlerDimitrios FarmakisPublished in: Heart failure reviews (2020)
Chronic heart failure (HF) is rare in the young and common in the elderly in the Western world. HF in the young is usually due to specific causes, predominantly or exclusively affecting the heart (adult congenital heart disease, different types of cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, or cardiotoxicity). In contrast, the mechanisms underlying HF development in the elderly have not been completely delineated. We propose that in most elderly patients, HF, regardless of the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), is the consequence of the acceleration of cardiovascular aging by specific risk factors (usually hypertension, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus [T2DM], coronary artery disease [CAD], and valvular heart disease [VHD]), most affecting both the heart and the vasculature. These risk factors act individually or more commonly in groups, directly or indirectly (hypertension, obesity, and T2DM may lead to HF through an intervening myocardial infarction). The eventual HF phenotype and outcomes in the elderly are additionally dependent on the presence and/or development of comorbidities (atrial fibrillation, anemia, depression, kidney disease, pulmonary disease, sleep disordered breathing, other) and disease modifiers (race, sex, genes, other). The clinical implications of this paradigm are that aggressive treatment of hypertension, obesity, T2DM (preferably with metformin and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors), CAD, and VHD on top of measures that retard cardiovascular aging are the steadfast underpinning for HF prevention in the elderly, which represent the vast majority of HF patients.
Keyphrases
- ejection fraction
- risk factors
- aortic stenosis
- coronary artery disease
- acute heart failure
- middle aged
- atrial fibrillation
- heart failure
- blood pressure
- left ventricular
- insulin resistance
- congenital heart disease
- metabolic syndrome
- type diabetes
- weight loss
- weight gain
- glycemic control
- pulmonary hypertension
- community dwelling
- percutaneous coronary intervention
- magnetic resonance
- gene expression
- magnetic resonance imaging
- acute myocardial infarction
- physical activity
- newly diagnosed
- high fat diet induced
- left atrial
- cardiovascular disease
- aortic valve
- venous thromboembolism
- genome wide
- coronary artery bypass grafting
- body mass index
- acute coronary syndrome
- dna methylation
- skeletal muscle
- sleep quality
- left atrial appendage