State of the field: cellular and exosomal therapeutic approaches in vascular regeneration.

Pathologies of the vasculature including the microvasculature are often complex in nature, leading to loss of physiological homeostatic regulation of patency and adequate perfusion to match tissue metabolic demands. Microvascular dysfunction is a key underlying element in the majority of pathologies of failing organs and tissues. Contributing pathological factors to this dysfunction include oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress, endothelial dysfunction, loss of angiogenic potential and vascular density, and greater senescence and apoptosis. In many clinical settings, current pharmacologic strategies use a single or narrow targeted approach to address symptoms of pathology rather than a comprehensive and multifaceted approach to address their root cause. To address this, efforts have been heavily focused on cellular therapies and cell-free therapies (e.g., exosomes) that can tackle the multifaceted etiology of vascular and microvascular dysfunction. In this review, we discuss 1 ) the state of the field in terms of common therapeutic cell population isolation techniques, their unique characteristics, and their advantages and disadvantages, 2 ) common molecular mechanisms of cell therapies to restore vascularization and/or vascular function, 3 ) arguments for and against allogeneic versus autologous applications of cell therapies, 4 ) emerging strategies to optimize and enhance cell therapies through priming and preconditioning, and, finally, 5 ) emerging strategies to bolster therapeutic effect. Relevant and recent clinical and animal studies using cellular therapies to restore vascular function or pathologic tissue health by way of improved vascularization are highlighted throughout these sections.