Genetic differentiation and local adaptation of the Japanese honeybee, Apis cerana japonica .

We examine the population genetic structure and divergence among the regional populations of the Japanese honeybee, Apis cerana japonica , by re-sequencing the genomes of 105 individuals from the three main Japanese islands with diverse climates. The genetic structure results indicated that these individuals are distinct from the mainland Chinese A. cerana samples. Furthermore, population structure analyses have identified three genetically distinct geographic regions in Japan: Northern (Tohoku-Kanto-Chubu districts), Central (Chugoku district), and Southern (Kyushu district). In some districts, "possible non-native" individuals, likely introduced from other regions in recent years, were discovered. Then, genome-wide scans were conducted to detect candidate genes for adaptation by two different approaches. We performed a population branch statistics (PBS) analysis to identify candidate genes for population-specific divergence. A latent factor mixed model (LFMM) was used to identify genes associated with climatic variables along a geographic gradient. The PBS max analysis identified 25 candidate genes for population-specific divergence whereas the LFMM analysis identified 73 candidate genes for adaptation to climatic variables along a geographic gradient. However, no common genes were identified by both methods.