A Health Threat from Farm to Fork: Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Co-Harboring bla NDM-1 and mcr-1 in Various Sources of the Food Supply Chain.

The dissemination of resistant pathogens through food supply chains poses a significant public health risk, spanning from farm to fork. This study analyzed the distribution of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) across various sources within the animal-based food supply chain. A total of 500 samples were collected from livestock, poultry, the environment, fisheries, and dairy. Standard microbiological procedures were employed to isolate and identify E. coli isolates, which were further confirmed using MALDI-TOF and virulence-associated genes (VAGs) such as stx1, stx2, ompT, hylF, iutA, fimH, and iss . The phenotypic resistance patterns of the isolates were determined using the disc diffusion method, followed by molecular identification of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) through PCR. STEC were subjected to PCR-based O typing using specific primers for different O types. Overall, 154 (30.5%) samples were confirmed as E. coli , of which 77 (50%) were multidrug-resistant (MDR) E. coli . Among these, 52 (67.53%) isolates exhibited an array of VAGs, and 21 (40.38%) were confirmed as STEC based on the presence of stx1 and stx2 . Additionally, 12 out of 52 (23.07%) isolates were identified as non-O157 STEC co-harbouring mcr-1 and bla NDM-1 . O26 STEC was found to be the most prevalent among the non-O157 types. The results suggest that the detection of STEC in food supply chains may lead to serious health consequences, particularly in developing countries with limited healthcare resources.