Exploring Carbonization Temperature to Create Closed Pores for Hard Carbon as High-Performance Sodium-Ion Battery Anodes.

Biomass-derived porous carbon materials are meaningful to employ as a hard carbon precursor for anode materials of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) from a sustainability perspective. Here, a straightforward approach is proposed to develop rich closed pores in pinenut-derived carbon, with the aim of improving Na + plateau storage by adjusting the pyrolysis temperature. The optimized sample, namely the pinenut-derived carbon at 1300 °C, demonstrates remarkable reversible specific capacity of 278 mAh g -1 , along with a high initial Coulomb efficiency of 85% and robust cycling stability (with a capacity retention of 89% after 800 cycles at 0.2 A g -1 ). In situ and ex situ analyses unveil that the developed closed pores play a significant role in enhancing the plateau capacity, providing compelling evidence for the "adsorption-filling" mechanism. Moreover, the corresponding full-cell achieves a high energy density of 245.7 Wh kg -1 (based on the total weight of both electrode active materials) and exhibits outstanding rate capability (191.4 mAh g -1 at 3 A g -1 ).