Turning waste avocado stones and montmorillonite into magnetite-supported nanocomposites for the depollution of methylene blue: adsorbent reusability and performance optimization.

The existence of methylene blue (MB) in wastewater even as traces is raising environmental concerns. In this regard, the performances of four adsorbents, avocado stone biochar (AVS-BC), montmorillonite (MMT), and their magnetite Fe 3 O 4 -derived counterparts, were compared. Results showed the superior performance of Fe 3 O 4 @AVS-BC and Fe 3 O 4 @MMT nanocomposites with removal percentages (%R) of 95.59% and 88%. The morphological features of AVS-BC as revealed by SEM analysis showed a highly porous surface compared to a plane and smooth surface in the case of MMT. Surface analysis using FT-IR and Raman spectroscopies corroborated the existence of the Fe-O peaks upon loading with magnetite. The XRD analysis confirmed the formation of cubic magnetite nanoparticles. The adsorption process in the batch mode was optimized using central composite design (CCD). Equilibrium and kinetic isotherms showed that the adsorption of MB onto Fe 3 O 4 @AVS-BC fitted well with the Langmuir isotherm and the pseudo-second-order (PSO) model. The maximum adsorption capacity (q m ) was 118.9 mg/g (Fe 3 O 4 @AVS-BC) and 72.39 mg/g (Fe 3 O 4 @MMT). The Fe 3 O 4 @AVS-BC showed a higher selectivity toward MB compared to other organic contaminants. The MB-laden adsorbent was successfully used for the remediation of Cr (III), Ni (II), and Cd (II) with removal efficiencies hitting 100% following thermal activation.