Bio-based resources: systemic & circular solutions for (agro)environmental services.

The global promotion of decarbonisation through the circular solutions and (re)use of bio-based resources (BBR), i.e. waste streams, notably from the agricultural, forest and municipal sectors has steadily increased in recent decades. Among the transformative solutions offered by BBR, biosolids (BS), biochars (BC), and bioashes (BA) specifically attract scientific attention due to their highly complex organo-mineral matrices, which present significant potential for recovery in the agro-/forest-ecosystems. These materials enhance various soil (i) chemical (pH, macro/micro nutrient concentrations, organic matter content), (ii) physical (porosity, water-air relations, compaction) or (iii) microbial (diversity, activity) properties. Furthermore, some of transformed BBR contribute to a multitude of environmental services such as the remediation of contaminated sites and wastewater treatment, employing cost-effective and eco-friendly approaches that align with circular economy/waste management principles, ultimately contributing to climate change mitigation. However, several challenges impede the widespread utilization/transformation of BBR, including technological limitations in processing and application, concerns about contamination ( e.g. , PAHs, PCBs, micro/nano plastics present in BS), toxicity issues ( e.g. , heavy metals in BA or nanoparticles in BC), and regulatory constraints ( e.g. , non-uniform regulations governing the reuse of BA and BS). Addressing these challenges demands an interdisciplinary and intersectoral approach to fully unlock the potential of BBR in sustainable decarbonisation efforts.