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A complete season with attendance restrictions confirms the relevant contribution of spectators to home advantage and referee bias in association football.

Fabrizio SorsMichele GrassiTiziano AgostiniMauro Murgia
Published in: PeerJ (2022)
These findings demonstrate that the absence of spectators significantly reduced the home advantage compared to previous seasons with spectators. A slight home advantage persisted in the 2020-21 season, probably due to other factors, namely, learning and travel, according to the model by Courneya & Carron (1992). Conversely, the referee bias was not observed, suggesting that it mainly derives from the pressure normally exerted by spectators.
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  • healthcare