Dynamics and drivers of mycorrhizal fungi after glacier retreat.

The development of terrestrial ecosystems depends greatly on plant mutualists such as mycorrhizal fungi. The global retreat of glaciers exposes nutrient-poor substrates in extreme environments and provides a unique opportunity to study early successions of mycorrhizal fungi by assessing their dynamics and drivers. We combined environmental DNA metabarcoding and measurements of local conditions to assess the succession of mycorrhizal communities during soil development in 46 glacier forelands around the globe, testing whether dynamics and drivers differ between mycorrhizal types. Mycorrhizal fungi colonized deglaciated areas very quickly (< 10 yr), with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi tending to become more diverse through time compared to ectomycorrhizal fungi. Both alpha- and beta-diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were significantly related to time since glacier retreat and plant communities, while microclimate and primary productivity were more important for ectomycorrhizal fungi. The richness and composition of mycorrhizal communities were also significantly explained by soil chemistry, highlighting the importance of microhabitat for community dynamics. The acceleration of ice melt and the modifications of microclimate forecasted by climate change scenarios are expected to impact the diversity of mycorrhizal partners. These changes could alter the interactions underlying biotic colonization and belowground-aboveground linkages, with multifaceted impacts on soil development and associated ecological processes.