Effects of noise-cancelling headphones on music experience during aerobic exercise.

Exercise psychology researchers have repeatedly demonstrated the positive effects of music on exercise performance and affective responses. However, the impact of ambient noise (i.e., any environmental and/or bodily sound interference) on psychological responses to music during aerobic exercise has not been thoroughly examined. To test the effects of ambient noise, participants were randomly assigned to either a control group or one of two experimental groups (music with or without noise-cancelling features). Participants completed the Balke and Ware Treadmill Exercise Test until voluntary exhaustion. Measures of attentional focus and perceived exertion were taken every minute during the test. A significant main effect of group on attentional focus was observed, indicating that participants in the control group experienced more associative thoughts when compared to the experimental groups (η p 2  = .15). No significant differences were observed across conditions for any other dependent variable. Accordingly, it appears reasonable to postulate that the attentional shifts caused by interoceptive sensory cues may have a more pronounced influence on movement execution than the presence/absence of ambient noise and/or music.