Maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and children's emotional problems at the age of 2 and 5 years: a longitudinal study.

Findings suggest that an absence of depressive symptoms in their fathers cannot compensate for the adverse effects of maternal depressive symptoms upon their children. Moreover, paternal depressive symptoms alone do not lead to increased risk for emotional problems in these 2- and 5-year-old children. In contrast, even subclinical levels of maternal depressive symptoms in late pregnancy are associated with increased risk for their children's experiencing internalizing and externalizing emotional problems.