A scoping review of current non-pharmacological treatment modalities for phantom limb pain in limb amputees.

Currently, the evidence surrounding most treatment modalities is limited and only a fraction of studies are supported by strong evidence. The findings of this review demonstrated a clear need to conduct more rigorous research with diverse study designs to better understand which modalities provide the most benefit and to incorporate neuroimaging to better determine the neural correlates of PLP and mechanisms of various treatments.Implications for RehabilitationPhantom limb pain (PLP) is a prevalent and debilitating condition following amputation and health care professionals should incorporate an evidence-based pain management protocol into their rehabilitation program.There exist a number of different non-pharmacological therapies to address PLP, however the scientific rigor and levels of evidence vary across modalities.Prescription of interventions for PLP should consider individual patient differences, accessibility to the patient, and quite possibly, a multi-modal approach, particularly for those who also experience residual limb pain.Imagery-based therapies provide the highest level of current evidence based on robust and large randomized control trials, are readily accessible, and are thus most recommended for relief of PLP.