Interpersonal and intrapersonal manifestations of HIV stigma and their impacts on psychological distress and life satisfaction among people living with HIV: Toward a dual-process model.

Stigma reduction programs that target non-HIV healthcare workers are recommended to confront their misconceptions and biases toward PLHIV. Given the high prevalence of self-stigma, psychological interventions that focus on restructuring negative beliefs about PLHIV and reconstructing a self-empowering and positive identity are necessary to promote better mental health and quality of life.