Tumor cell-released autophagosomes (TRAPs) promote immunosuppression through induction of M2-like macrophages with increased expression of PD-L1.

These findings suggest the TRAPs-PD-L1 axis as a major driver of immunosuppression in the TME by eliciting macrophage polarization towards an M2-like phenotype, and highlight the potential novel therapeutic approach of simultaneously targeting autophagy and PD-L1.