Environmental PM 2.5 -triggered stress responses in digestive diseases.

Airborne particulate matter in fine and ultrafine ranges (aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm, PM 2.5 ) is a primary air pollutant that poses a serious threat to public health. Accumulating evidence has pointed to a close association between inhalation exposure to PM 2.5 and increased morbidity and mortality associated with modern human complex diseases. The adverse health effect of inhalation exposure to PM 2.5 pollutants is systemic, involving multiple organs, different cell types and various molecular mediators. Organelle damages and oxidative stress appear to play a major role in the cytotoxic effects of PM 2.5 by mediating stress response pathways related to inflammation, metabolic alteration and cell death programmes. The organs or tissues in the digestive tract, such as the liver, pancreas and small intestines, are susceptible to PM 2.5 exposure. This review underscores PM 2.5 -induced inflammatory stress responses and their involvement in digestive diseases caused by PM 2.5 exposure.