Regulatory B cells: TIM-1, transplant tolerance, and rejection.

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) ameliorate autoimmune disease and prevent allograft rejection. Conversely, they hinder effective clearance of pathogens and malignancies. Breg activity is mainly attributed to IL-10 expression, but also utilizes additional regulatory mechanisms such as TGF-β, FasL, IL-35, and TIGIT. Although Bregs are present in various subsets defined by phenotypic markers (including canonical B cell subsets), our understanding of Bregs has been limited by the lack of a broadly inclusive and specific phenotypic or transcriptional marker. TIM-1, a broad marker for Bregs first identified in transplant models, plays a major role in Breg maintenance and induction. Here, we expand on the role of TIM-1+  Bregs in immune tolerance and propose TIM-1 as a unifying marker for Bregs that utilize various inhibitory mechanisms in addition to IL-10. Further, this review provides an in-depth assessment of our understanding of Bregs in transplantation as elucidated in murine models and clinical studies. These studies highlight the major contribution of Bregs in preventing allograft rejection, and their ability to serve as highly predictive biomarkers for clinical transplant outcomes.