The effects of unexpected changes to content delivery on student learning outcomes: A psychological contract perspective during the COVID-19 era.

Meta-analyses suggest that student learning outcomes (SLOs) are comparable across modalities of instruction. None of these studies examined how unmet student expectations (here, unexpected changes in course delivery) might increase perceptions of student-instructor-university psychological contract breaches (PCBs) and, ultimately, perceived SLOs within and across modalities. The COVID-19 pandemic provided an opportunity to study these potential relationships because many residential institutions of higher education opted into, or were required to, offer distance and/or blended learning to accommodate COVID-19 safety mandates. This study sampled undergraduate students ( n  = 155) from a university, which, before the pandemic, offered exclusively face-to-face classroom instruction. During the Fall 2020 semester, however, this university offered three modalities of instruction: (1) face-to-face; (2) blended learning; and (3) distance education. The results of this study suggest that perceived PCBs by instructors and universities negatively influence underling indices of student achievement in terms of motivation, engagement, and learning within and across modalities of instruction. Given this and near universal decrements in student enrollment and retention in institutions of higher education, it is important for universities and instructors to understand, explicitly and transparently negotiate, and meet student expectations to improve student progression to graduation and maintain competitiveness among similar institutions.