Ecological factors affecting the fitness of the threatened orchid Anacamptis robusta (Orchidaceae): Habitat disturbance, interactions with a co-flowering rewarding orchid and hybridization events.

The food-deceptive species Anacamptis robusta is threatened in the Balearic Islands, and its habitat has recently been transformed through human disturbance. This study investigated how human disturbance affects the reproductive output of A. robusta and how its fitness is affected by competition with rewarding relatives, fungal infections and hybridization processes. To evaluate the impact of habitat loss on plant fitness, data on reproductive measures were obtained in two well-conserved subpopulations and the unique disturbed subpopulation. Photo-trapping cameras were installed to determine the floral visitation rate. All flowering individuals in 2019 were georeferenced using differential GPS to examine the influence of geospatial patterns on the reproductive success of A. robusta. In addition, hand-pollination treatments were performed to evaluate the hybridization between A. coriophora and A. robusta and the origin of A. × albuferensis. The human-disturbed subpopulation of A. robusta had a lower fruit set success than the subpopulations in well-conserved areas. The presence of A. coriophora is negatively affecting the reproductive output of A. robusta. Moreover, A. robusta can only act as the pollen donor during hybridization. The complexity of the ecological system, which is enhanced by the strong pollinator dependence of the threatened species, must be considered when making conservation decisions. Although human disturbance directly affects plant population stability, other ecological issues must be considered, such as pollinator interaction, interspecific competition for pollinators, fungal infection and hybridization events.