Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy: Pathogenesis, Diagnostic Tools, and Potential Biomarkers of Response to Therapy.

JC polyomavirus (JCV) establishes an asymptomatic latent and/or persistent infection in most of the adult population. However, in immunocompromised individuals, JCV can cause a symptomatic infection of the brain, foremost progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). In the last two decades, there has been increasing concern among patients and the medical community as PML was observed as an adverse event in individuals treated with modern (selective) immune suppressive treatments for various immune-mediated diseases, especially multiple sclerosis (MS). It became evident that this devastating complication also needs to be considered beyond the patient populations historically at risk, including those with hematological malignancies or HIV-infected individuals.We review the clinical presentation of PML, its variants, pathogenesis, and current diagnostic approaches. We further discuss the need to validate JCV-directed interventions and highlight current management strategies based on early diagnosis and restoring JCV-specific cellular immunity, which is crucial for viral clearance and survival. Lastly, we discuss the importance of biomarkers for diagnosis and response to therapy, instrumental in defining sensitive study endpoints for successful clinical trials of curative or preventive therapeutics.Advances in understanding PML pathophysiology, host and viral genetics, and diagnostics, in conjunction with novel immunotherapeutic approaches indicate that the time is right to design and carry out definitive trials to develop preventive options and curative therapy for JCV-associated diseases.