Non-Conventional Risk Factors: "Fact" or "Fake" in Cardiovascular Disease Prevention?
Giovanni CimminoFrancesco NataleRoberta AlfieriLuigi CanteSimona CovinoRosa FranzeseMirella LimatolaLuigi MarottaRiccardo MolinariNoemi MolloFrancesco S LoffredoPaolo GolinoPublished in: Biomedicines (2023)
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), such as arterial hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, etc., still represent the main cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. They significantly modify the patients' quality of life with a tremendous economic impact. It is well established that cardiovascular risk factors increase the probability of fatal and non-fatal cardiac events. These risk factors are classified into modifiable (smoking, arterial hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, low HDL cholesterol, diabetes, excessive alcohol consumption, high-fat and high-calorie diet, reduced physical activity) and non-modifiable (sex, age, family history, of previous cardiovascular disease). Hence, CVD prevention is based on early identification and management of modifiable risk factors whose impact on the CV outcome is now performed by the use of CV risk assessment models, such as the Framingham Risk Score, Pooled Cohort Equations, or the SCORE2. However, in recent years, emerging, non-traditional factors (metabolic and non-metabolic) seem to significantly affect this assessment. In this article, we aim at defining these emerging factors and describe the potential mechanisms by which they might contribute to the development of CVD.
Keyphrases
- cardiovascular disease
- risk factors
- cardiovascular risk factors
- arterial hypertension
- heart failure
- atrial fibrillation
- physical activity
- alcohol consumption
- risk assessment
- cardiovascular events
- left ventricular
- end stage renal disease
- type diabetes
- newly diagnosed
- ejection fraction
- weight loss
- chronic kidney disease
- metabolic syndrome
- body mass index
- left atrial
- clinical trial
- prognostic factors
- depressive symptoms
- direct oral anticoagulants
- randomized controlled trial
- cardiac resynchronization therapy
- low density lipoprotein
- peritoneal dialysis
- catheter ablation
- heavy metals
- skeletal muscle
- climate change
- subarachnoid hemorrhage
- smoking cessation
- sleep quality
- adipose tissue
- blood brain barrier
- insulin resistance
- patient reported
- brain injury
- study protocol